Research on the influential elements of user-centred digital art design for public space

Table of Contents

Digital art intervention in urban space

The terminology surrounding technological art forms has continuously evolved within academia. The art form commonly referred to today as “digital art” has undergone several transformations: it was initially known as “computer art,” followed by “multimedia art” and “cyber art” from the 1960s to the late 20th century, and more recently, “New Media Art.” This sequence of terminological changes reflects the ongoing evolution and development of the field. In the 21st century, “digital art” has become an umbrella term encompassing a wide range of artworks and practices, but it does not describe a unified set of aesthetics. A crucial distinction exists between art that uses digital technologies to create traditional artifacts, such as photographs, prints, or sculptures, and computable art that is created, stored, and disseminated through digital technologies, where the artwork’s identity is intrinsically linked to its digital medium. The latter is generally understood as digital art and is the focus of this study. These two broad categories differ significantly in terms of expression and aesthetics, existing within hybrid fields that are unique forms of creative expression.

Regarding digital art interventions in urban spaces, scholars both domestically and internationally have conducted extensive research. From an urban renewal perspective, Li Meixuan discusses the role of digital media technology in revitalizing key buildings in historic districts⁶. Additionally, Chen Xi explores the application of digital museums in displaying historical buildings in Beijing’s old city, detailing how digital museums can merge physical and virtual realities to enhance the presentation of these structures⁷. From the viewpoint of digital media technology, Chen Lin examines how digital art constructs interfaces for urban perception, illustrating through case studies how digital media can enhance the urban experience^8,9,10. These studies highlight the capabilities of digital art in urban interaction, revealing its creativity and richness as an interface that shapes urban perception and contributes to understanding urban culture in the digital age. This body of research provides valuable insights into the role of digital media technology in architectural contexts, offering lessons on its application and value in exploring architectural developments.

Beyond digital art in public spaces, digital technology has also significantly impacted public art, prompting numerous studies. For instance, Yu Lingliang discusses how virtual spaces can enhance the “public nature” of public art and improve its accessibility¹. Wang Feng examines the role of digital technology in promoting innovation in urban public art and interactive design¹¹. Pengcheng Pan’s work on “Digital Participation: Public Art in Virtual Space” explores the influence of digital participation on public art¹². Dong Yu and Ding Wenxia analyze the application of digital media technology in public art design and its impact on public art practices¹³. Zheng Jing’s research delves into the transition from “non-solid” to “non-material” in public art, examining the implications of immateriality on the field¹⁴. Liu Jianwei, Wang Weijia, and Chen Tong explore how digital information technology has transformed urban public art¹⁵. Cai Shunxing’s study on the “field” of digital public art provides an in-depth analysis of how digital art influences public art spaces¹⁶. These studies collectively explore the application and impact of digital technology in public art from various perspectives, covering topics such as virtual spaces, public art design, urban public art, immateriality, and digital public art. They employ a range of research methods, including theoretical analysis, empirical research, and case studies.

Internationally, research centers such as the Interactive Art Centre in Tokyo, Japan, and the Academy of Media Arts in Cologne, Germany, have become hubs for exploring the intersection of digital technology and art in public spaces. These centers bring together artists and technologists to infuse new vitality into art through digital innovations while conducting in-depth research on the application of digital art in urban environments. For example, Littwin investigates the connection between smart cities and digital art¹⁷. Borysova et al. examine the impact of the digital revolution on contemporary art, focusing on technological change, interactivity, and virtual aesthetics¹⁸. Charlie Gullström explores the role of presence design in the expansion of architecture¹⁹. Bidarra presents an interactive installation called “Feel Opo,” designed to enhance users’ understanding and perception of urban space.

In the realm of digital art applications, Wagner explores how to enhance social interactions in urban public spaces through playful elements, demonstrating that such elements can promote communication and interaction, thereby increasing the appeal of these spaces²⁰. Kuangfan Chen investigates the categorization of playable digital interventions in urban public spaces²¹. Enrico Nardelli proposes a framework for categorizing interactive digital artworks based on the ways they engage with users²². These studies offer practical insights into the use of digital art, examining its methods and patterns of application in contemporary contexts.

The aforementioned studies provide extensive theoretical and practical analyses of various aspects of digital art interventions in public spaces, laying a foundation for understanding the role of digital art in these settings. However, it is noteworthy that the user experience level has received comparatively less attention in these studies.Through a review of the literature, we have identified several key factors influencing the integration of digital art into public space design:

(1)

Aesthetic of Art: From a research perspective, the concept of aesthetic in digital art can be elucidated through three aspects: communication elements, modes of expression, and principles of artistic design. In terms of communication elements, digital art utilizes digital media as the medium, leveraging basic elements such as pixels, resolution, color, and shape to convey the artist’s creative intent²³. These elements interact to construct a rich visual sense of depth and three-dimensionality, thereby endowing digital artworks with unique aesthetic value. Regarding modes of expression, digital art represents both a continuation and innovation of traditional artistic techniques such as painting, sculpture, and photography²⁴. From the standpoint of artistic design principles, digital art adheres to traditional principles including contrast and harmony, symmetry and balance, rhythm and movement²⁵.
(2)

Functional Elements: Functional elements in digital art refer to the various roles that digital art can play. Practical functionality, cognitive functionality, and aesthetic functionality hold significant positions in digital art. Digital art’s practical functionality is manifested in its wide application across various fields²⁶. The cognitive functionality of digital art is primarily reflected in its impact on users’ cognition and thought processes²⁷. Digital artworks can convey information, ideas, and emotions to users in visual and auditory forms. The aesthetic functionality of digital art is demonstrated by digital artists’ ability to create unique and aesthetically pleasing works using a variety of digital tools²⁸. Digital artworks can express the artists’ feelings and thoughts through elements such as color, form, and lines, evoking emotional resonance from users.
(3)

Economic Elements: When creating digital art, creators need to analyze and evaluate factors such as market demand, target users, and competitive landscape, including resource allocation for creation, cost estimation, and potential profit analysis²⁹. In the process of digital art creation, creators use digital tools and platforms to engage in real creation. At this stage, economic elements mainly include the investment in creation tools, skill training, and learning costs. Additionally, the creation process of digital artworks may bring about collaborative effects, such as cooperation, crowdfunding, and sponsorship³⁰. These collaborative processes are beneficial for reducing production costs, enhancing the quality of the works, and expanding market influence.
(4)

Digital Technology: The perspective of digital technology is mainly discussed from three aspects: technological integration and innovation, technological elements, and technological aesthetics. Technological integration and innovation endow artworks with more technological content, enhancing user resonance³¹. Technological elements are an important part of digital art. Production technology determines whether an artwork can be created, product technology determines the presentation form and quality of the artwork, and operational technology determines whether the artwork can be effectively controlled and utilized³². From the perspective of technological aesthetics, digital art fully embodies technological aesthetics, which is mainly manifested in the application of technological elements and the interpretation of technological concepts in artworks^8,9,10.
(5)

Time: The concept of time in digital art refers to the temporal dimension involved in the creation and interaction of digital artworks. From a research perspective, it includes three aspects: interaction response time, interaction duration, and the temporal aspect of the artwork itself. Interaction response time refers to the speed at which a digital artwork responds to user input during the interaction process³³. This is often a key element in digital art, as user experience is a crucial aspect of digital art. Interaction duration refers to the length of time that users interact with digital artworks³⁴. This duration directly affects user experience and the presentation form of the artwork. The temporal aspect of the artwork refers to the time concept inherent in the digital artwork itself, including the time expressed by the artwork and the relationship between time and space.

User perspective

The user perspective is a user-centered approach that involves constructing usage scenarios and providing solutions by gaining a deep understanding of users’ needs and expectations. In this study, “users” primarily refer to individuals involved in the interaction with digital art in public spaces, including participants, creators, and viewers. Participants are those who actively engage with and interact with digital artworks. Creators are the individuals who produce these digital artworks, typically artists or designers. Viewers are those who observe the digital art without directly interacting with it. Despite their distinctions, these roles often overlap and transform into one another in various contexts. The participation of these individuals is crucial for the representation and experience of digital art in public spaces.

A well-designed system should exhibit behaviors and attributes tailored to specific conditions, making it both user-friendly and enjoyable for its target audience. Hongwei Zhu emphasizes the significant role of the user in product-service systems³⁵. From a user perspective, sustainable design principles and methods are proposed, such as constraining interactions, providing feedback to users, and fostering environmentally friendly awareness. These principles aim to promote positive interactions between products and people, and to design solutions that are sustainable, human-centered, and effective.

Domestic scholars have increasingly focused on the user perspective, initiating research across various fields from the user’s point of view. For instance, evaluating archived websites with a user-centric approach has led to suggested improvements. Deng Jun found that user perception offers a comprehensive measure of website quality when assessing the service quality of archival websites³⁶. Shen Hongzhou and colleagues developed an index system for assessing the quality of crowdsourcing websites from the customer’s perspective, continuously refining it to obtain the latest insights³⁷. Yao Yao constructed an evaluation index system from the customer’s perspective, conducting surveys and data analyses on group-buying websites, and ultimately developed a reasonable evaluation framework³⁸. Compared to foreign research, the exploration of the user perspective in domestic studies began relatively late, often drawing on international findings. Initially, research in digital art interventions in public spaces was more aligned with the creators’ experiences, focusing on self-expression by artists or government-led initiatives. However, as the user perspective has gained prominence, it has become clear that the novelty and engagement of digital artworks may not always resonate with users. This underscores the need for deeper understanding of user needs and closer alignment with real user demands.

International research on user perspectives began earlier, with different disciplines gradually recognizing the importance of users. In the context of website evaluation, foreign scholars have also emphasized user participation. For example, Tsiaousis and Giaglis focus on user experience in mobile website design, proposing a usability evaluation method that highlights the importance of user experience³⁹. Carta et al. introduced a tool for remote user experience evaluation called Web Usability Probe, designed to help website designers understand and improve user needs and experiences by collecting feedback⁴⁰. These studies emphasize the critical role of user feedback in website design, asserting that user experience is a key factor in a website’s success. They also highlight the importance of considering different device types, such as mobile users, to ensure that website design is both effective and engaging⁴¹.

The research from a user perspective has demonstrated the feasibility of theoretical analysis and practical application of user – centered design methods. Furthermore, the user – level factors can be categorized into the following aspects:

(1)

Psychological Expectations: Psychological expectations of users refer to the psychological experiences pursued based on different motivations when utilizing public spaces, mainly manifested in four aspects: celebration and gathering, leisure and entertainment, venting and release, and identity recognition. Celebration and gathering provide opportunities for the public to celebrate together, fulfilling social, cultural, and emotional needs, and enhancing social solidarity and a sense of identity⁴². Leisure and entertainment, as an important function of public spaces, offer recreational activities through parks, amusement venues, and performance halls, thereby improving the quality of life. Venting and release refer to the process where people relieve stress and alleviate tension through physical activities and expressions in public spaces, such as outdoor sports facilities⁴³. Identity recognition is fostered through collective activities, social interactions, and shared experiences, enabling users to develop a sense of belonging and identity with public spaces, and promoting social connections and cultural exchanges⁴⁴.
(2)

Visual Experience: Visual experience of users refers to the psychological experiences gained during the process of perceiving and interacting with visual images, which can be understood from five aspects: perceptual identification experience, emotional response experience, image interpretation experience, visual memory experience, and visual cultural experience. Perceptual identification experience involves recognizing the attributes of images such as color, shape, and texture through visual perception⁴⁵. Emotional response experience refers to the emotional reactions triggered by images, such as preferences, aversions, excitement, or calmness. Image interpretation experience is the process of interpreting the subject, meaning, and symbols of images based on personal experiences, cultural background, and knowledge. Visual memory experience involves recalling and reproducing images, forming visual memories. Visual cultural experience is related to the cultural connotations carried by images, reflecting their significance within a cultural context. These experiences collectively constitute the comprehensive psychological experience of users with images⁴⁶.
(3)

Aesthetic Ability: Aesthetic ability of users refers to an individual’s knowledge, skills, experience, and understanding of aesthetic values in the field of aesthetics. It is mainly reflected in three aspects: aesthetic judgment, aesthetic orientation, and aesthetic expression. Aesthetic judgment is the ability of users to evaluate the aesthetic value, style, and meaning of artworks, cultural products, or design works, which is the foundation for accurately recognizing aesthetic value and creating unique aesthetic experiences⁴⁷. Aesthetic orientation represents the personalized preferences of users for beauty, which vary due to differences in aesthetic experiences, cultural backgrounds, and living environments, leading to diverse evaluations of the same work⁴⁸. Aesthetic expression involves sharing aesthetic experiences and emotions with others through various means such as language, painting, music, and dance, thereby evoking resonance and communication.
(4)

Interpretation of Artworks: The interpretation of artworks by users refers to the process of cognition and interpretation of artworks by individuals, which can be academically described from three aspects: the concept of the work, the evaluation of its meaning, and its social value⁴⁹. The interpretation of the concept of the work involves recognizing its inherent ideas (positive or negative humanistic connotations), emphasizing a unified way of understanding the subject and object. The evaluation of the work’s meaning involves judging the significance conveyed by the artwork. The social significance of digital artworks is regarded as a form of social utility evaluation, and its public opinion orientation directly affects public perception. The interpretation of the social value of the work focuses on its value at different levels, including value to others, collective value, self—value, social value, and existential value, such as the work’s role in personal self—discovery, expression, and the inspiration and resonance it brings to others.
(5)

Multi—Sensory Experience: Multi—sensory experience is an important way to enhance user experience, involving the combined effect of multiple senses such as vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell⁵⁰. In terms of visual experience, elements such as clear interface composition, high—resolution images, reasonable color matching, and smooth animation playback can enhance visual appeal and interaction willingness. Auditory experience is enhanced through clear sounds, standard music, and appropriate sound effects, increasing user affinity and immersion. Tactile experience focuses on the touch feel of the interface and button feedback, affecting user satisfaction with the product. Although taste and smell experiences are not widely applied in public spaces, they provide unique immersive experiences in specific scenarios (such as digital art related to food and drink, or fragrance e—commerce) through aromatic and taste—related elements.

Public space

In this study, the term “public space” refers to a platform or medium for displaying digital art. This can be physical, such as paper, walls, or physical locations, or virtual, such as screens, mobile phones, computers, films, or websites. These serve as the fundamental media for the creation and presentation of digital artworks. While both physical and virtual spaces function as basic platforms, the former is a tangible, visible entity or space, whereas the latter exists in the digital realm, relying on screens, networks, or devices.

The complexity of public space, its multidisciplinary nature, and its deep roots in urban history have long attracted scholarly attention. Researchers have explored various aspects such as vitality, systems, qualities, forms, and squares⁴¹. However, the study of public space as a core topic in urban research is still relatively nascent, particularly since the 1960s when Europe’s economic crisis led to a social crisis that prompted a critical rethinking of modernist urban planning, which had been dominated by functional zoning. In response to the evolving meanings of public space, Western scholars have developed a range of theoretical frameworks, with the field’s development broadly divided into four stages: the formation stage, the development stage, the refinement stage, and the data era.

The formation stage occurred around the 1950s, primarily within socio-philosophical-political discourse. Following the “Second Industrial Revolution,” Western societies experienced a rise in self-awareness, leading to increased public participation and civic engagement. In 1958, Hannah Arendt introduced the concept of the “public sphere,” while Habermas defined it as the space and time between the private interests of civil society and the sphere of state power⁵¹. Subsequently, Lewis Mumford formally incorporated the concept of public space into urban studies⁵².

The development stage, spanning the 1960s and 1970s, focused on the humanistic dimension of public space. Influential scholars emerged during this period. For instance, Scaringe advocated for urban perception as a means to create uniquely attractive urban images (Scaringe, 2001). Manfredin emphasized designing comfortable public spaces, particularly highlighting the importance of streets and squares (Clive Munfordin, 2004). Oscar Newman introduced the concept of defensible space, emphasizing the relationship between urban design, community stability, and quality of life⁵³. Christopher Alexander proposed a human-centered approach to urban design, analyzing the impact of the urban environment on human behavior and emotions⁵⁴. Similarly, Jan Gehl, a strong advocate of human-centered design, made significant contributions to the development of public spaces in Copenhagen⁵⁵. Jane Jacobs critically examined urban development issues and challenged conventional urban planning approaches⁵⁶.

The refinement stage, occurring in the 1970s and 1980s, brought a broader and more diversified understanding of public space. During this period, public space gained widespread recognition. William H. Whyte explored the sociological importance of public space in small cities, arguing that it serves as a vital area for socialization, communication, and interaction, which significantly impacts urban community development and quality of life. He emphasized that public space design should be people-centered, focusing on human needs and behavior patterns ⁵⁷. Ashihara Yoshinobu, by observing and describing streets, proposed a theory that highlights the quality and experience of street spaces, arguing that streets are not merely transportation routes but crucial places for social interactions⁵⁸. He emphasized the impact of elements such as scale, openness, and landscape on street experiences. Norberg-Schultz explored the concept of the “spirit of place,” underscoring the importance of place in shaping human emotions and memories and the role of architecture in reflecting these characteristics⁵⁹. These scholars collectively stressed the interactive relationship between urban spaces and people, advocating for a human-centered approach in the design and planning of public spaces, with a focus on perceptions, experiences, and needs.

The data era, from the 1980s to the present, has been characterized by multidisciplinary theoretical integration and the advancement of spatial quantitative research. The rise of the digital age has led scholars to incorporate multidisciplinary theories in their quantitative studies of public spaces, moving beyond perceptual analyses to delve into issues such as morphological features, vitality indicators, comfort, and the interpretation of openness and publicness. For example, Pryke reviewed the spatial redevelopment of the City of London, providing an in-depth analysis of how spatial matrix changes contribute to urban development (⁶⁰. Hillier and Hanson applied a sociological approach to study human behavior and interactions within urban spaces⁶¹.

In terms of research methodology for public spaces, tools such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), traditional social surveys, and quantitative statistical analyses have been widely employed⁶². For instance, Bishop et al. used virtual environments to assess countryside walking path choices, analyzing human behavior and the factors influencing these choices⁶³. Heeyeun analyzed the distribution of private public spaces in Manhattan, mapping their use and the development of public activities through fieldwork and data collection, and discussing the spatial analysis results in conjunction with empirical observations (Heeyeun Y, Sumeeta S, 2015). Nemeth and Schmidt conducted empirical research on the use of public space after privatization and its impact on urban residents’ activities and interactions⁶⁴. Smith, through case studies, examined the phenomenon of public space privatization and its impact, discussing the creation of public spaces and the evolution of urban spatial structures, and analyzing how privatization affects urban residents’ lives⁶⁵.

The research on public spaces integrates empirical studies, mathematical modeling, and spatial analysis, proposing corresponding recommendations and strategies. These studies provide significant theoretical support and practical references for the research methods of digital art interventions in public spaces. Through a review, we have identified several key factors at the public space level:

(1)

Scale: The scale of public spaces refers to the impact of spatial size on human perception and utilization, which can be described from three aspects: planar scale, vertical scale, and visual scale⁶⁶. Planar scale refers to the ground area, where smaller spaces can make people feel crowded and uneasy, while larger spaces provide a sense of spaciousness and freedom, such as the contrast between a large lawn in a park and a small square. Vertical scale refers to the three—dimensional dimensions of space (height, width, depth), where smaller spaces can be oppressive and constraining, while larger spaces offer freedom and comfort, such as the difference between a high—ceilinged shopping mall and a low—ceilinged corridor. Visual scale refers to the range of scenery visible within the space, where a good view can make people feel comfortable and relaxed, while a narrow view can be oppressive and tiring, such as the contrast between an open city square and a blocked—off line of sight⁶⁷. The scale of public spaces significantly affects human cognition and utilization. During design, it is necessary to plan the spatial size and form reasonably according to human needs to create a comfortable and pleasant environment.
(2)

Accessibility: The accessibility of public spaces refers to the ability of people to conveniently enter and use these spaces⁶⁸, which is mainly measured from three aspects: spatial connectivity, foot traffic, and population density. Spatial connectivity is an important indicator of accessibility and can be measured by the degree of road network development, the convenience of public transportation, and walking distance⁶⁹. Public spaces with well—developed roads, convenient transportation, and short walking distances have stronger accessibility. Foot traffic is also a key measure of accessibility. Public spaces with high foot traffic indicate strong attractiveness and good accessibility, which can be obtained through surveys and statistics. Population density is equally important. Public spaces in densely populated areas are more likely to be used and have better accessibility. Only with good spatial connectivity, high foot traffic, and population density can public spaces better serve urban residents⁷⁰.
(3)

Cultural and Historical Context: The cultural and historical context of public spaces is mainly studied from three aspects: cultural environment, temporal influence, and natural scenery. In terms of cultural environment, public spaces are the main venues for displaying traditional customs,Local flavor, and architectural styles, reflecting the unique culture of a place⁷¹. From the perspective of temporal influence, public spaces not only record the trajectory of cultural evolution but are also deeply affected by factors such as wars, social unrest, and celebrity culture⁷². In terms of natural scenery, public spaces interact with the surrounding natural environment, and natural landscapes become an important part of them, providing spaces for people to enjoy, relax, and entertain⁷³. Studying the cultural and historical context of public spaces can reveal their diverse cultures and historical connotations, promote the inheritance of historical culture, and provide references for urban planning and design to better protect and utilize their historical and cultural value.
(4)

Management and Operation: The management and operation of public spaces cover four aspects: government policies, management regulations, operational services, and social willingness. Government policies guide the development and management of public spaces through regulations, involving urban planning, land use, economy, and environmental protection. Management regulations clarify the norms and responsibilities for space use, covering order maintenance, environmental cleanliness, and public safety. Operational services include facility maintenance, cleaning, safety management, and the organization of public activities, aiming to enhance the comfort and attractiveness of the space and promote community development. In terms of social willingness, encouraging citizen participation and feedback can enhance community cohesion and improve space utilization and satisfaction⁷⁴.
(5)

Climate Conditions: The climate conditions of public spaces have an important impact on their use and comfort, mainly involving four aspects: wind, humidity, temperature, and precipitation⁷⁵. The strength and direction of the wind directly affect people’s feelings. Strong winds can make people feel cold and uneasy, while moderate winds can bring a cool and pleasant atmosphere. Humidity affects people’s comfort. High humidity makes the air sticky and affects heat dissipation, while appropriate humidity enhances comfort. Temperature is a key factor in the utilization of public spaces. High or low temperatures can make people uncomfortable and reduce space usability, while suitable temperatures encourage people to participate in activities and leisure. The frequency and intensity of precipitation also affect the use of public spaces. Excessive precipitation can make spaces slippery and unfavorable for activities, while less precipitation is conducive to outdoor activities. These climate elements directly relate to the comfort and usage experience of public spaces. Through scientific understanding and optimized design, the planning and management of public spaces can be enhanced to provide better usage experiences for people.

User participation intention

User Participation Intention” is a key concept that describes the intrinsic tendency and subjective willingness of individuals to participate in specific activities or systems⁷⁶. This concept is particularly important in studies related to user experience (UX), product design, and virtual communities. User participation intention not only reflects the positive attitude of individuals towards participation but also involves their expectations of benefits, perceived ease of use, and social impact of the participation behavior. Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes the influence of individual self—efficacy and outcome expectations on participation intention⁷⁷. When users believe they can successfully complete a task and anticipate positive outcomes from it, their participation intention significantly increases. User participation intention is a multidimensional construct that can comprehensively reflect the psychological and behavioral characteristics of users in design activities. In empirical research, this variable is usually measured through scales and analyzed in conjunction with methods such as Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to reveal its relationships with other design variables (such as user satisfaction and design quality). In the field of design, understanding and enhancing user participation intention is of great significance for optimizing user experience, promoting product innovation, and enhancing user loyalty.

link